Mentoring System Involved Youth

Hirsch, B. J., Mickus, M., & Boerger, R. (2002). Ties to Influential Adults among Black and White Adolescents: Culture, Social Class, and Family Aetworks. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(2), 289-303.
Although prior research suggests the importance of nonparental adults to adolescents, the ecological context of those relationships has received little attention. This study examined ties to influential adults among 122 adolescents who varied by race, family structure, and gender. The strongest effects were for race. Blacks reported stronger ties than Whites to the maternal grandmother as well as more supportive interactions with adult males. While race differences in grandparental ties were robust across social class (SES), ties to an influential adult male became non-significant upon controlling for SES. African American girls from divorced families consistently reported the strongest ties. Discussion considers the role of culture versus SES in explaining race differences. Implications for mentoring interventions are proposed, with special attention to the role of actualizing latent ties to already existing network members.

Klaw, E. L., & Rhodes, J. E. (1995). Mentor Relationships and the Career Development of Pregnant and Parenting African-American Teenagers. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19(4), 551-562.
This study examined the influence of natural mentor relationships on the educational and career outlook of 204 African-American pregnant and parenting teenagers (aged 11-19 years). Subjects were asked about their career related activities and aspirations, and completed the Scale of Concrete Beliefs about the Opportunity Structure to assess the degree to which they believed that education would lead to opportunities for individuals like themselves. They also completed the Life Orientation Test to measure life optimism. A path model suggested that mentor support was positively associated with increased life optimism and participation in career-related activities and beliefs that education would lead to future jobs. These findings suggest that natural mentors are an important resource in the career development of pregnant and parenting African-American adolescents.

Klaw, E. L., Rhodes, J. E., Fitzgerald, L. F. (2003). Natural Mentors in the lives of African American Adolescent Mothers: Tracking Relationships Over Time. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32(3), 223-232.
This study focused on the academic attainment of African American adolescents as they made the transition from pregnancy or recent delivery to 2 years postpartum. We examined the duration, characteristics, and effects of relationships that endured over 2 years postpartum, and the role of adolescents’ mentor versus maternal support. Compared to participants who did not identify mentors at either time point, participants whose mentor relationships endured over the course of the 2-year study were more likely to have remained in school or graduated. Subsequent analyses revealed that long-term mentor relationships were characterized by weekly and, in many instances, daily interactions. Additionally, participants in long-term mentor relationships reported deriving more emotional support from their mentors than from their mothers, were more satisfied with mentor support, and indicated that this support was more important to them than maternal support.

Liddle, H. A., Jackson-Gilfort, A., & Marvel, F. A. (2006). An empirically supported and culturally specific engagement and intervention strategy for African American adolescent males. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(2), 215-225.
The need for effective culturally responsive treatments has become more urgent as the number of ethnic minority clients continues to increase. Previous research with a clinically referred sample of substance-abusing African American inner-city teenagers found that treatment engagement increased when cultural content was incorporated in the therapeutic process (Jackson-Gilfort, Liddle, Tejeda, & Dakof, 2001). This article amplifies these findings by offering clinical guidelines for how to develop and implement culturally specific interventions that contribute to the therapeutic engagement of African American adolescent males. Clinical outcomes may be improved by integrating culturally responsive intervention methods within a multi-systemic approach to the adolescent's treatment.

Sánchez, B., Reyes, O., & Singh, J. (2006). A Qualitative Examination of the Relationships that Serve a Mentoring Function for Mexican American Older Adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12(4), 615-631.
This exploratory study was an in-depth examination of Mexican American adolescents' relationships with nonparental adults. Qualitative interviews with 10 Mexican American adolescents revealed 23 nonparental adults who served a mentoring function in their lives. Six of these nonparental adults were also interviewed. Data analyses were conducted using a grounded theory approach so that the relationships were described in participants' words and experiences. The nonparental adults identified by adolescents included siblings, extended family members, older peers, and institutional figures. The support provided took many different forms, from emotional to informational/experiential support, to modeling behavior, for example. Further, adolescents were supported in eight different areas of their lives. Participants also discussed the perceived benefits of these relationships for adolescents. Future research directions and implications for youth programming are discussed.

Sanchez, B., & Reyes, O. (1999). Descriptive Pprofile of the Mentorship Relationships of Latino Adolescents. Journal of Community Psychology, 27(3), 299-302.
This article explored the description and definition of natural mentors and the mentor relationships of urban Latino adolescents. 162 urban Latino high school sophomores participated in individual structured interviews. Subjects were asked to identify a mentor; their relation to the mentor; the mentor’s gender, ethnicity, and age; the frequency of contact and length of the mentorship relationship; and type of support provided by the mentor. Limited variability in the characteristics of the mentors and mentoring relationships were found. Implications of the definition of mentor for Latino adolescents are discussed.

Stanton-Salazar, R. D., & Spina, S. U. (2003). Informal Mentors and Role Models in the Lives of Urban Mexican-origin Adolescents. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 34(3), 231-254.
This article draws on a larger study investigating the social networks and help-seeking practices of Mexican-origin youth in San Diego, California. The authors present the subset of findings concerning adult, non-family informal mentors and role models. Using survey data, interviews, and a critical ethnographic perspective grounded in sociological theory, the article examines participating adolescents' critical understandings of these significant figures in their lives, the rare and fortuitous nature of these relationships, and their empowering influence in the lives of urban, low-income, and immigrant Latino youth. Linkages to social capital and developmental theories are offered.

Zimmerman, M. A., Bingenheimer, J. B., & Notaro, P. C. (2002). Natural Mentors and Adolescent Resiliency: A Study with Urban Youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(2), 221-243.
Natural mentors may play an important role in the lives of adolescents. We interviewed 770 adolescents from a large Midwestern city. Fifty-two percent reported having a natural mentor. Those with natural mentors were less likely to smoke marijuana or be involved in nonviolent delinquency, and had more positive attitudes toward school. Natural mentors had no apparent effect on anxiety or depression. Using the resiliency theory framework, natural mentors were found to have compensatory but not protective effects on problem behaviors, and both compensatory and protective effects on school attitudes. Direct and indirect (mediated) effects of natural mentors are explored for problem behaviors and school attitudes. The potential importance of natural mentors is supported, and implications for future research are considered.